PAGE 1
     THE QUESTION AT HAND IS WHETHER ONE CAN FIND ANY
CORRELATION BETWEEN A CULTURE'S MUSICAL MODE OF RHYTHMIC
EXPRESSION AND ITS MORE GENERAL PERCEPTION OF TIME. AN
AESTHETIC PREFERENCE, SUCH AS AN ARTISTIC
CHARACTERISTIC, IS HIGHLY CORRELATED WITH THE WAY ONE PERCEIVES
HIS WORLD, AND THIS IN TURN IS HIGHLY CORRELATED
WITH THE WAY ONE PERCEIVES TIME.  SINCE TIME AND RHYTHM ARE
ARE BOTH TEMPORAL ENTITIES, ONE COULD CONCEIVABLY FIND THAT
THE PERCEPTION OF ONE OF THESE AREAS WILL INFLUENCE PERCEPTION
OF THE OTHER.
FOR EXAMPLE, IT MIGHT BE TRUE THAT A CULTURE THAT IS UNINTERESTED
IN EXACTLY DETERMINING  THE PROGRESS OF TIME WILL ALSO BE SIMILARLY
INDIFFERENT ABOUT USING A STEADY RHYTHMIC STRUCTURE THROUGHOUT
A PIECE.  OR, WE MIGHT FIND THAT A PEOPLE WITHOUT A 
WELL-DEVELOPED SENSE OF TIME (OR THAT TIME IS RELATIVELY UNIMPORTANT
IN THEIR LIVES) WILL USE RHYTHMS THAT ARE RELATIVELY 
UNCOMPLEX WHEN COMPARED TO THOSE OF MORE SOPHISTICATED TIME USERS.
     IN THIS STUDY, SEVERAL HYPOTHESES WILL BE DRAWN
UP IN AN EFFORT TO FIND SOME CORRELATION BETWEEN
MUSICAL RHYTHMS AND TIME SENSES.  THEY WILL BE:  1. DO COMPLEX
CULTURES PRODUCE COMPLEX ARTS.  2. DOES A STRICT OR 
METHODICAL TIME SENSE PRODUCE STRICT RHYTHM.  3. DO SIMILAR
CULTURES MAKE RHYTHMS IN SIMILAR WAYS.  EACH OF THESE WILL
BE LOOKED AT IN DETAIL.  IT MUST
BE EMPHASIZED THAT, UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED, WE ARE
DEALING ONLY WITH THE RHYTHMIC ASPECT OF MUSIC RATHER THAN
THE MUSIC IN ITS ENTIRETY, AND THROUGHOUT THE FOLLOWING,
THE TERM "RHYTHM" WILL REFER TO "MUSICAL RHYTHM".  
     IN ORDER TO BEGIN 
ONE HAS TO BE ABLE TO FIND SOME REFERENCE POINT FROM WHICH
IT CAN DEFINATELY BE SAID THAT ONE CULTURE'S PERCEPTION OF
ONE OF THE ENTITIES IS DIFFERENT FROM ANOTHER'S.  THIS IS
DIFFICULT.  LIKE LANGUAGE, A FAMILIAL SYSTEM AND RELIGION
PERCEPTION OF TIME FLOW AND ART FORMS ARE UNIQUE
TO ANY ONE CULTURE.  BUT, IS TIME PERCEPTION SUBJECT TO
ACCULTURATION EFFECTS AS MUCH AS THE ART FORMS.   ART
IS AN OVERT ASPECT OF A CULTURE THAT IS READILY ANALYZABLE
AND CAN BE EASILY TRANSPORTED  ELSEWHERE EITHER BY
MOVING AN ARTIFACT OR BY THE PEOPLE THEMSELVES WITH A SONG OR DANCE.
AMONG THE VENDA OF CENTRAL AFRICA, A PERSON WHO
BRINGS HOME A NEW SONG FROM ANOTHER VILLAGE IS A TEMPORARY
HIGHLIGHT OF ENTERTAINMENT (A FORM OF POP MUSIC AS IT WERE).
SONGS AMONG THE AMERICAN INDIANS ARE BORROWED EXTENSIVELY,
AND EVEN AFTER MANY YEARS OF USE, THEY ARE STILL
ATTRIBUTED TO THEIR SOURCE TRIBE.  THE WAY
THAT SOMEONE THINKS ABOUT TIME IS A HIGHLY INDIVIDUAL
THING THAT IS MODELED FROM THE FRAMEWORK OF THE CULTURE'S
GENERAL PHILOSOPHY.  WHILE WITH EXPOSURE, THE LANGUAGE OF AN
ART FORM CAN BE UNDERSTOOD BY AN ALIEN ALMOST AS WELL AS BY THE NATIVE,
HE  CAN  APPRECIATE THE NATIVE'S TIME SENSE INTELLECTUALLY BUT
TO EVER HAVE ANY GUT-LEVEL PERCEPTION OF IT WOULD NECESSITATE
IT BECOMMING PART OF HIS EXISTENCE.  FOR INSTANCE, IT IS  
COMMON AMONG WESTERNERS TO DISCUSS THE "EASTERN" TIME
SENSE, BUT THOSE WHO ACHIEVE A MORE COMPLETE UNDERSTANDING
OF IT MUST FIRST DEVOTE THEIR LIVES TO IT.
     PIAGET STATES THAT A LANGUAGE CONCEPT IS ACQUIRED
EARLIER THAN A TIME CONCEPT SUGGESTING THAT THE 
FORMER IS EASIER TO LEARN.  BETWEEN FOUR AND EIGHT
YEARS, THE USE OF LANGUAGE AIDS THE CHILD IN DECENTRALIZING
HIS VIEW OF THE WORLD.  HE IS ABLE TO DEAL WITH CONCEPTS
BUT HE CAN'T UNDERSTAND SPACE AND TIME YET.
A SPACE CAN BE SEEN ONLY IF IT'S FULL AND IT IS UNCLEAR
THAT THE SPACE IS THE SAME SIZE WHEN
IT IS EMPTY.  SIMILARLY, EVENTS HAPPEN
AS TIME AND  TWO EVENTS HAVE SEPARATE TIMES.  THE
EVENT WHICH FINISHED LAST TOOK THE LONGEST REGARDLESS
OF WHETHER IT BEGAN BEFORE ANOTHER.  AND, THE SAME TIME 
ON TWO DIFFERENT DAYS IS REGARDED AS DIFFERENT. (GINSBURG).
     WHILE WE CAN LABEL A RHYTHMIC METHOD AND TRACE ITS INTERCULTURAL
SPREAD FOLLOWING THE MIGRATIONS OF VARIOUS PEOPLES, TIME SENSE
INFLUENCES ARE MUCH MORE DISCRETE.  FOR INSTANCE,
AMERICAN "CLOCK ORIENTATION", NECESSITY TO ALWAYS BE "ON
TIME", AND FEELING THAT TIME IS "RUNNING AWAY" 
HASN'T YET BEEN ASSIMILATED INTO THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN
CULTURE EVEN THOUGH THEY ARE IN CONSTANT CONTACT.  THE 
MEXICAN-AMERICAN CONTINUES TO THINK IN TERMS OF CLOCKS "WALKING" AND
THAT THE COURSES OF TIME AND HIS LIFE ARE MERELY COEXISTING
RATHER THAN ONE MASTERING THE OTHER.  THUS, HERE WE HAVE
THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN WHO IS EASILY BILINGUAL BUT FOR HIM TO
SWITCH BETWEEN TWO TIME-SENSES (OR EVEN ACQUIRE ANOTHER ONE)
IS NOT  POSSIBLE.

PAGE 2
     LEVI-STRAUSS STATES THAT THERE ARE TWO BASIC TYPES OF
TIME PERCEIVERS (LEVI-STRAUSS, 1963).  PEOPLES IN BOTH
CATEGORIES ARE SPREAD AROUND THE WORLD WITH NO WELL-DEFINED
STREAMS OF INFLUENCE FROM ONE TO THE OTHER.
     THE FIRST, TIME TYPE I, INVOLVES THOSE WHO EMPHASIZE CHANGE
AND WHO FIND IMPORTANCE IN CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORIES AS
INDICATION OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT.  A PERSON IS BROUGHT
UP TO FEEL RESPONSIBLE TO A LARGE AMOUNT OF PEOPLE FOR BEING
"TIME CONSCIOUS" AND CERTAIN OCCASIONS, SUCH AS BEING LATE, ARE
PUNISHABLE.  TIME IS SEEN AS AN AGENT OF SOCIAL CONTROL.
PROGRESSIVE (SOPHISTICATED) CULTURES FIT INTO THIS
CATEGORY.  THEY INCLUDE EASTERN AND WESTERN EUROPEAN
SOCIETIES (INCLUDING SPANISH AND ENGLISH SPEAKING AMERICA),
INDIA, NON-PRIMITIVE BLACK AFRICA, ETC.
(THE, UNTIL RECENTLY, STATIC CHINESE CULTURE WILL BE HELD HERE
AS AN EXCEPTION TO THIS RULE.  ITS CHRACTERISTICS ARE
NEITHER OF GROUP ONE OR TWO, BUT IT WILL BE CONSIDERED A 
A TIME TYPE ONE CULTURE.)
     THE OTHER TYPE, TIME TYPE II, INCLUDES PEOPLE WHO WISH 
TO MAINTAIN EQUILIBRIUM IN THEIR SOCIETIES AND NATURE.
THE NOTION OF PROGRESS, AS THE SUCCESSION OF TIME BLOCKS 
DURING WHICH THE STATUS OF THINGS CHANGE FOR BETTER 
OR WORSE, ISN'T CONCEIVED OF.  THE RECKONING OF TIME IS BASED
ON AN ANNUAL CYCLE OF CHANGES IN NATURE AND THE SUCCESSION OF MAN'S
ACTIVITIES AS THEY  RELATE TO THESE CHANGES SUCH AS
PREPARING FOR THE RAINY SEASON, HARVESTING, BRINGING
THE CATTLE IN FOR THE EVENING, ETC.  EXCEPT FOR DROUGHTS, WARS,
PESTILENCES, AND THE LIKE, THERE IS LITTLE TO DIFFERENTIATE
ONE YEAR FROM THE NEXT.  HISTORIES ARE UNCHRONOLOGICAL
CLASSIFICATIONS OF EVENTS USUALLY MIXING MYTH WITH FACT.  
IN MOST CASES, THE FUTURE OF EACH PERSON IS FIXED BY THE 
LAWS OF SOCIETY SO ANY SPECULATIONS INTO
THE DISTANT FUTURE ARE RELATIVELY UNNECESSARY.  GENERALLY,
THERE IS NO CONCEPT OF TIME AS SOMETHING THAT PASSES OR IS AN
ACTUAL ENTITY THAT ONE SPEAKS ABOUT.
TIME JUST HAPPENS MUCH LIKE DAY AND NIGHT AND THERE IS NO NEED 
TO CONTROL IT.  THIS GROUP INCLUDES NON-LITERATE (SUBSISTENCE)
CULTURES.  AMONG THEM ARE THE INDIANS OF NORTH AND SOUTH
AMERICA, AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINALS, AFRICAN PRIMITIVES, AND PEOPLES
OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS, ETC.  
     THE BOUNDARIES OF THESE TWO TYPES ARE, OF
COURSE, NOT RIGID.  CULTURES WHICH COME IN BETWEEN THESE
RANGE FROM THE MAORI OF NEW ZEALAND, WHO ARE UPPER CRUST
PRIMITIVES, TO PEASANT SOCIETIES OF EUROPE WHO ARE
LOW-LEVEL SOPHISTICATES.  AS A SOCIETY DRAWS FURTHER AWAY
FROM A PURELY SUBSISTENCE EXISTENCE, THE TREND IS THAT 
IT GETS LARGER AND IT BECOMES MORE INTERESTED IN
CONTROLLING ITS GROUPS OF PEOPLE.  WITH THESE
EVOLUTIONS, THE TIME TYPE I CONCEPT IS INVOLVED.
     WE WILL USE THIS DESCRIPTION OF TIME PERCEIVERS
THROUGHOUT THE FOLLOWING SO THAT THE TERMS "SOPHISTICATED"
AND "NON-LITERATE" ARE SYNONYMOUS WITH TIME-TYPES I AND II,
RESPECTIVELY.  AS CULTURES DIFFER IN THEIR TIME
PERCEPTIONS, SO DO INDIVIDUALS.  NO DOUBT, NO TWO PEOPLE
OF THE SAME CULTURAL HERITAGE PERCEIVE TIME IN THE SAME
WAY.  BUT, SINCE ALL PEOPLE WITHIN ONE CULTURE MUST CONFORM
TO A CERTAIN DEGREE TO THE SALIENT ELEMENTS THAT MAKE IT A
UNIQUE CULTURE, THEIR PERCEPTIONS MUST ORIGINATE FROM A BASIC
MODEL.  WE WILL CONCERN OURSELVES WITH THE PEOPLE'S  
OVERALL CONCEPT OF TIME AND NOT WITH THESE INDIVIDUAL PERCEPTIONS.
     IN CONTINUATION TO OUR STATEMENTS ABOUT CULTURES BECOMING
MORE SOPHISTICATED, WE WILL PRESENT OUT FIRST REASONABLE
HYPOTHESIS.  AS A CULTURE BECOMES MORE SOPHISTICATED, THE ART
WILL BECOME MORE COMPLEX ON THE WHOLE.  THIS IS A CONFUSING
ISSUE AND THERE IS MUCH EVIDENCE PRO AND CON TO IT.  THE
MOST STRIKING UNSUPPORTIVE EXAMPLE IS
THAT THE SOPHISTICATED  CHINESE CULTURE PRODUCES VERY 
SIMPLE MUSIC.
BUT, IF WE VIEW ALL OF THE CULTURES IN A HIERARCHY
FROM THE MOST SIMPLE TO THE MOST COMPLEX, WE WILL NOTICE THAT
THE GROSS OUTLINE SHOWS THAT THE CORRESPONDING ARTS
ALSO FOLLOW THE SAME PATTERN.  FOR INSTANCE, ABORIGINAL
MUSIC IS LESS ADVANCED THAN AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC WHICH IN
TURN IS SIMPLER THAN MEXICAN MUSIC WHICH IS SIMPLER THAN
WESTERN EUROPEAN ART MUSIC.  BUT, THE FINER DETAILS SHOW
DISSENTING EXAMPLES.  AMONG THEM IS THAT 
IN THE AMERICAN INDIAN WORLD, THE MOST COMPLEX CULTURES ARE AT
GEOGRAPHIC CENTERS OF THE AREA AND THE MOST COMPLEX MUSIC IS
FOUND AT GEOGRAPHIC EXTREMES, OR POINTS OF EXTRACULTURAL CONTACT.
ALSO, MUCH OF THE MUSIC OF PRIMITIVE BLACK
AFRICA IS MORE COMPLEX THAN THE MUSIC OF EUROPEAN PEASANT
SOCIETIES.  THESE CONTRADICTIONS DON'T LEND THEMSELVES TO
STUDY AT THIS POINT BECAUSE THAT WOULD BE A LENGTHY
ASSIGNMENT IN ITSELF.  FOR THIS REASON, WE WILL BE RESTRICTED
TO MUSICAL RHYTHMS.  AS WE SHALL SEE LATER, RHYTHMIC AND
CULTURAL COMPLEXITIES DON'T CORRELATE EVEN AS WELL AS 
MUSIC AND CULTURAL LEVELS OF SOPHISTICATION DO.

PAGE 3
     SINCE I AM NOT WELL ACQUAINTED WITH ANY OTHER TIME SENSE
OTHER THAN A WESTERN ONE, IT WOULD BE DIFFICULT TO BEGIN
BY COMPARING VARIOUS MUSICS AND TIME SENSES.  BECAUSE ART
STYLES ARE EASILY UNDERSTOOD AND ARE THUS MORE
SUBJECT TO ARMCHAIR ANALYSIS THAN CULTURAL TIME SENSES, WE WILL
APPROACH THE RHYTHM/TIME SENSE QUESTION BY COMPARING 
VARIOUS RHYTHMS.  FOLLOWING A DESCRIPTION OF BASIC
MUSICAL AND RHYTHMIC TYPES, THE AFORE MENTIONED
HYPOTHESES CONCERNING RHYTHMS IN THEIR CULTURAL CONTEXTS
WILL BE PRESENTED WITH RELATED EVIDENCE.
     AS WE HAVE ALREADY SEEN, THE FIRST HYPOTHESIS,
THAT COMPLEX CULTURES WILL PRODUCE COMPLEX ARTS,
HAS FAILED.  THE REMAINING TWO ARE:  1. DOES A METHODICAL
TIME SENSE PRODUCE STRICT RHYTHMS., AND 2. DO
SIMILAR CULTURES MAKE RHYTHM IN SIMILAR WAYS.  THE
KINDS OF EVIDENCE THAT WILL BE USED ARE COMPARISONS OF
RHYTHMS USE EITHER BETWEEN CULTURES OF ONE TIME TYPE OR
OF BOTH, AND SOME PHILOSOPHICAL CORRELATIONS.  THE
CONCLUSIONS WILL BE UNSUPPORTIVE FOR BOTH HYPOTHESES.
FINALLY, AN ALTERNATE STRUCTURALIST APPROACH WILL BE 
INTRODUCED IN WHICH THE MUSICAL RHYTHM/TIME CORRELATION WILL
BE JOINED WITH EXAMINATIONS OF OTHER ASPECTS OF RHYTHMIC USAGE 
IN A CULTURE; I.E., PERCEPTION OF SEASONAL CHANGE, HISTORY,
SPEECH RHYTHMS AND GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION.
     AS WITH CULTURES BEING TIME TYPED, MUSICS FALL
INTO BASIC CATEGORIES WITH OVERLAPPING AMIBIGUITIES.  THE
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RHYTHM THAT WILL BE DEALT WITH ARE
THOSE USED IN CERTAIN FORMS  OF SOPHISTICATED (OR
"ART"), FOLK, AND NON-LITERATE MUSICS.
THE DEFINITIONS THAT I WILL USE ARE AS FOLLOWS.
SOPHISTICATED MUSIC IS FOUND ONLY IN LITERATE SOCIETIES AND IS 
CULTIVATED BY PROFESSIONAL MUSICIANS.  (THE TERM "PROFESSIONAL  
IS NOT USED STRICTLY IN THE WESTERN SENSE - IMPLYING A
FULL-TIME JOB SITUATION).
THE MUSIC HAS
A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND IS USUALLY FOUND WITH A NOTATION
SYSTEM.  FOLK MUSIC IS OF PEOPLE WITHIN A LITERATE
SOCIETY BUT WHO ARE NOT TRAINED MUSICIANS.  THE MUSIC IS 
PASSED ON BY ORAL TRADITION (THIS IS ALSO TRUE OF SOME
SOPHISTICATED MUSICS) AND THE STYLE IS USUALLY SIMILAR TO
BUT SIMPLER THAN 
THAT OF THE CULTIVATED MUSIC.  FOR INSTANCE, INDIA AND 
WESTERN EUROPE HAVE EXTENSIVE CULTIVATED ARTS AND ALSO 
HAVE  THRIVING FOLK TRADITIONS.
NON-LITERATE MUSIC (OR PRIMITIVE) IS BASICALLY LIKE FOLK MUSIC
BUT IT OCCURS IN CULTURES THAT ARE NOT ASSOCIATED WITH ANY
SOPHISTICATED GROUP OF PEOPLE.  FOLK AND PRIMITIVE MUSICS
IS MORE DIRECTLY FUNCTIONAL IN THE SOCIETY THAN MUSIC IS
IN SOPHISTICATED SOCIETIES. IT DOES NOT HAVE TO BE STUDIED BY
THE PEOPLE IN ORDER TO BE BETTER UNDERSTOOD.
THIS  SHOULD NOT
BE CONFUSED WITH SIMPLE MUSIC THAT IS COMPOSED OF SMALL MELODIC
STEPS AND ELEMENTARY RHYTHMS.  SIMPLE MUSIC CAN
OCCUR IN BOTH PRIMITIVE AND HIGH CULTURES SUCH AS CHINA.
AS WE SHALL SEE, PRIMITIVE MUSIC ON THE WHOLE IS NO MORE
OR LESS COMPLEX THAN SOPHISTICATED MUSIC.
     AMONG THE PEOPLES OF THE WORLD, THERE SEEM TO BE
TWO METHODS OF METER MAKING, (WITH MUCH OVERLAP).
METER IS REPEATED GROUPS OF BEST PULSES - SUCH AS THE
WESTERN 3/4 AND THE INDIAN JAP TAL OF TEN BEATS.  A RHYTHM
IS BUILT WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF A METER.  SUCH AS THE
STRING          WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF A FOUR BEAT METER.
     THE FIRST IS A "DIVISIVE" APPROACH IN WHICH UNITS CAN BE 
DIVIDED INTO REGULAR BEAT PULSES.  THERE ARE STRESSES 
AT THE BEGINNING AND USUALLY HALF WAY THROUGH THE UNIT THAT
ARE EITHER ACTUAL OR SUGGESTED.  THIS DESCRIPTION SHOULD BE
FAMILIAR SINCE WESTERN MUSIC ADHERES STRONGLY TO THIS
METHOD.
     THE SECOND METHOD IS AN 
"ADDITIVE" CONCEPT IN WHICH THE ENTIRE METER IS THE SUM OF 
ASSORTED DURATION LENGTHS.  WHILE A 7 BEAT METER
PRESENTS PROBLEMS TO THE SYMMETRICALLY MINDED WESTERN EAR,
AN INDIAN HEARS IT AS BEING THE SIMPLE SUM OF 3 + 4.  THE
ASSYMMETRY CARRIES INTO EVEN METERS SO THAT EIGHT BEATS ARE PERCEPTUALLY  DIVIDED
UNEQUALLY INTO 4 + 2 + 2 AND THREE BEATS INTO 1 + 2.
     GENERALLY, DIVISIVE METER
IS CHARACTERISTIC OF THE WEST, THE FAR EAST AND SOUTH EAST
ASIA (A CHINESE INFLUENCE) AND ADDITIVE METER IS USED IN 
INDIA, THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST, EASTERN EUROPE (A
MID EASTERN INFLUENCE), AND NEGRO AFRICA.  NEGRO AFRICA
PRODUCES THE WORLD'S MOST COMPLEX RHYTHMS BEING CONCEIVED
IN POLYRHYTHMIC AND POLYMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS.  WESTERN
AFRICAN CREATIONS ARE MORE COMPLEX THAN THOSE OF EASTERN
AND SOUTHERN AFRICA  WHERE THEY ARE INFLUENCED BY THE
SYSTEMATIC METRIC PATTERNS OF THE NEAR EAST, MIDDLE EAST AND INDIA.
POLYRHYTHM IS THE USE OF UNRELATED RHYTHMS EITHER SEQUENTIALLY
IN ONE PART OR VERTICALLY IN TWO OR MORE PARTS. 
WHEN THE POLYRHYTHM IS VERTICAL, THE 
SIMULTANEOUS PARTS MAY OCCASIONALLY COINCIDE ON THE INITIAL
BEATS OF GROUPS BUT THEY DON'T NECESSARILY HAVE TO.
IT IS COMMON FOR TWO DRUMMERS OF A GROUP TO CONTINUALLY 
PLAY COUNTER TO EACH OTHER THROUGHOUT A PERFORMANCE.

   1ST DRUM        

   2ND DRUM

   3RD DRUM

   4TH DRUM

   VOICES

           NORTERN RHODESIA - BEMBA DANCE
   AN EXAMPLE OF HORIZONTAL POLYRHYTHM IS ON PAGE SIX.
THE GOAL IN AFRICAN MUSIC IS TO PRODUCE AN OVERALL SOUND 
EFFECT FROM THE MERGING OF ALL PARTS. 

PAGE 4
     HYPOTHESIS TWO - WILL A METHODICAL 
TIME SENSE (OR OUR TIME-TYPE 1) ENGENDER A MORE
RIGID RHYTHM ( VIZ. WESTERN CLOCKS AND RIGID MILITARY
MARCHES).  THE IMPLICATIONS OF THIS WOULD BE THAT THE LESS  
A CULTURE IS CONCERNED THAT HIS WORLD IS ORGANIZED
AROUND A CLOCK OR THAT LAST YEAR'S EVENTS ARE ACCURATELY
RECORDED, THE LESS METRONOMIC HIS RHYTHMS WILL BE OR
HE WON'T BE PARTICULARLY CONCERNED ABOUT KEEPING THE RHYTHM
OF A SONG THE SAME IN DIFFERENT PERFORMANCES.
     THIS IMMEDIATELY PRESENTS A PROBLEM IN PINPOINTING
WHAT RIGID RHYTHM  IS AND WHY ONE RHYTHM IS MORE RIGID THAN 
ANOTHER.  THE FOLLOWING EVIDENCE IS PRESENTED COMPARING
THE SAME METHOD USED WITHIN A TIME TYPE ONE CULTURE
AND A TIME TYPE TWO CULTURE.  
     IN SOME CULTURES IT IS
IMPORTANT TO FAITHFULLY PRESERVE THE SHORTS AND LONGS
OF THE SUNG TEXT RATHER THAN TO ADHERE TO PARTICULAR RHYTHMIC
SEQUENCES AS IN ANCIENT GREECE AND MANY NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 
TRIBES.  IN SOME OF THESE CASES, FOR EXAMPLE THE CHIPPEWA
INDIANS, THE MELODY BUT NEVER THE RHYTHM CAN CHANGE
WITHOUT AFFECTING THE SONG.  THE OPPOSITE IS TRUE
OF WESTERN MUSIC IN THE FRENCH BAROQUE ERA.  UNMEASURED
PRELUDES WERE WRITTEN IN WHICH ONLY THE MELODY WAS
SPECIFIED LEAVING THE RHYTHMS COMPLETELY UP TO THE
PERFORMER'S DISCRETION.  ON THE OTHER HAND, ELSEWHERE
IN BAROQUE MUSIC, THE RHYTHM MUST REMAIN RECOGNIZABLY
INTACT AND THE MELODY MAY BE IMPROVISED UPON TO ANY 
EXTENT WHILE REMAINING WITHIN THE HARMONIC SYNTAX.
     THE STRICT ORDERING OF IMPULSES 
IN DIFFERENT PERCUSSIVE PARTS TOWARD ACHIEVING AN OVERALL
SOUND PATTERN, AS IN INDONESIA AND NEGRO AFRICA, IS ANOTHER METHOD
ONE COULD THEORIZE THAT INDONESIAN MUSIC IS THE MORE
METRONOMICALLY ORGANIZED BECAUSE THIS CULTURE IS FURTHER
UP IN THE HIERARCHY TOWARD TIME TYPE I.  BUT ALTHOUGH
THE OVERALL SOUND OF AFRICAN MUSIC IS NOT METRONOMIC, EACH
PERFORMER IS COMPLETELY AWARE OF GETTING HIS DOWNBEAT IN
AT THE CORRECT POINT OF EMPHASIS TO MAKE THE STAGGERED
POLYRHYTHM EXACT.  THE RHYTHMIC CONCEPTS IN BOTH MUSICS ARE
EQUALLY STRICTLY ORGANIZED.
    SOME CULTURES PERCEIVE THE RHYTHM OF THE VOICE
AND THE RHYTHM OF THE INSTRUMENTAL ACCOMPANIMENT (IF IT CAN BE
CALLED THAT) AS TWO COMPLETELY INDEPENDENT ENTITIES.  IN THESE
CASES, THE TWO PARTS WILL PROCEED AT TWO DIFFERENT SPEEDS, ONE
HAVING LITTLE EFFECT ON THE OTHER.  THE YUMAN AND YAQUI INDIANS KEEP
THE VOICE AT ONE TEMPO WHILE THE DRUM BEGINS SLOWER AND 
GRADUALLY SPEEDS UP UNTIL IT IS FASTER.
THIS PHENOMENON IS ALSO FOUND AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINALS
AND ON THE CAROLINE ISLANDS IN MICRONESIA.
INDEED,
BECAUSE THIS PHENOMENON IS MOST COMMONLY FOUND IN THE
THE NONLITERATE WORLD, ONE MIGHT THINK THAT
ONLY A PRIMITIVE MIND COULD DO THIS SORT OF THING AND THAT IT
TAKES A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF SOPHISTICATION TO CONCEIVE OF 
SIMULTANEOUS RELATED PARTS.   BUT, MORE 
SOPHISTICATED PEOPLES USE THIS METHOD EXTENSIVELY SUCH
AS IN MEDIEVAL MOTETS WHICH WERE COMMONLY WRITTEN WITH 
PARTS THAT WERE ONLY METAPHORICALLY RELATED.
IN THE JAPANESE NOH DRAMA,
FOR CERTAIN SONGS THE FLUTE AND VOICE ARE INDEPENDENT OF 
EACH OTHER.  THEY ARE SUPPOSED TO BE HEARD AS COEXISTING
MUSICS, OTHERWISE HAVING NOTHING TO DO WITH EACH OTHER
     AT THIS POINT, ONE SHOULD NOT CONFUSE THE
TERM "FREE RHYTHM" WITH A LACK OF ORDER.  FREE RHYTHM IMPLIES
THAT THERE IS NO METRICAL STRUCTURE BUT, NONETHELESS, THE RHYTHM IS ORGANIZED
BY SOMETHING WHETHER IT BE TEXT OR SOME "EMOTIONAL OUTBURST".
(THE LATTER CLICHE IS USUALLY USED BY THE ROMANTICALLY
INCLINED MUSICOLOGISTS OF THE THIRTIES (SACHS, HORNBOSTEL, HERZOG)
WHEN DESCRIBING THE ELABORATE SOLO INTRODUCTIONS OF CERTAIN
ARABIC FORMS.  ARAB TERMINOLOGY SOLVES THE PROBLEM BY LABELING
THEM "NON-MUSIC".)  ONE CANNOT SAY THAT A BIRD'S SONG LACKS
RHYTHMICAL ORGANIZATION; IT IS METERLESS.  IT IS NO MORE
CHAOTIC THAN THE METER OF WESTERN DANCE MUSIC IS MECHANICALLY
PRECISE.  NO CULTURE HAS BEEN FOUND TO USE FREE RHYTHM EXCLUSIVELY.
     WITH THIS EVIDENCE, IT IS OBVIOUS THAT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE
TO MAKE DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN RHYTHMIC STRICTNESS'.  THE
SOUNDING END PRODUCT FOR DIFFERENT PEOPLES ARE
DIFFERENT AND THE WAYS IN WHICH THESE IDEALS ARE REACHED
ARE ALL STRICTLY ORGANIZED, OTHERWISE THE FORMS
WOULDN'T EXIST.  THEREFORE, DETERMINING WHETHER OR NOT STRICT
TIME SENSES AND STRICT RHYTHMS ARE INTERRELATABLE, IS NOT
A VIABLE APPROACH TO SEEING WHAT RHYTHMIC METHODS HAVE TO
DO WITH TIME SENSES.

PAGE 5
     RATHER THAN IMMEDIATELY TRY AND DRAW SOME
SPECIFIC CONCLUSIONS BY MAKING COMPARISONS WITH SUCH
A SPECIFIC ITEM AS STRICTNESS, THE NEXT APPROACH WILL BE
ON A BROADER SCALE.
     HYPOTHESIS THREE - MIGHT SIMILAR CULTURS, EITHER
GEOGRAPHICALLY DISTANT OR CLOSE, FOR EXAMPLE, NEIGHBORING
AMERICAN INDIAN TRIBES AND NEIGHBORING EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
WHICH SHARE THE SAME BASIC CULTURE, USE SIMILAR COMPLEX
OR SIMPLE RHYTHMIC METHODS.  THIS SHALL NOT BE
CONFUSED WITH HYPOTHESIS ONE - THAT COMPLEX CULTURS PRODUCE
COMPLEX RHYTHMS.  WITH HYPOTHESIS THREE, THE FACT THAT
SIMPLE CULTURES USE COMPLEX RHYTHMS, AND VICE VERSA, IS
ACCOUNTED FOR.  SIMILAR CULTURES ARE MEANT TO BE CULTURES WHICH
ARE SOMEWHAT CLOSE TOGETHER ON THE TIME TYPE SCALE, INDICATING
THAT THEIR PERCEPTIONS OF THE COSMOS ARE COMPARABLE.
THE IMPLICATIONS OF THIS HYPOTHESIS ARE THAT IF SIMILAR
NEIGHBORING OR DISTANT PEOPLES ARE FOUND TO USE SIMILAR
RHYTHMS, THEN, INDEED, THE MUTUAL SIMILAR TIME SENSE COULD
VERY WELL BE INVOLVED.  BUT, IF WE FIND THAT THESE SIMILAR
PEOPLE DO NOT USE SIMILAR RHYTHMS OR THAT VERY
DIFFERENT PEOPLE USE CORRESPONDING RHYTHMS, THEN WE WOULDN'T
EXPECT THAT THE TIME SENSE IS AN INFLUENCING FACTOR.
IT DOESN'T STAND TO REASON THAT IF ONE 
ELEMENT IS SIMILAR ACROSS TWO CULTURES AND ANOTHER IS NOT,
THAT THE TWO DIFFERENT ELEMENTS WITHIN ONE CULTURE 
COULD BE RELATED.
     IT SHOULD BE EMPHASIZED AGAIN THAT THE FOLLOWING
EVIDENCE DEALS WITH RHYTHMIC COMPLEXITIES AND NOT WITH OVERALL
MUSICAL SOPHISTICATION.  AS WE HAVE SEEN, SINCE MUSIC
AND CULTURAL COMPLEXITIES MAY INCREASE TOGETHER, RHYTHMIC 
SOPHISTICATION IS NOT EASILY CONFINED TO THE DEGREE OF CULTURAL
OR EVEN MUSICAL ADVANCEMENT.  FOR EXAMPLE, SOME MUSICS
ARE MOSTLY SIMPLE, USING SIMPLE  CONSTRUCTIONS AND SIMPLE 
MELODIES, ETC., BUT THE RHYTHMS CAN BE VERY COMPLEX.

PAGE 6
     THE FOLLOWING SET OF EVIDENCE WILL BE MORE DETAILED
DESCRIPTIONS OF THE BASIC TYPES OF METRIC METHODS THAN WAS
RHYTHMS ARE THE SUBSEQUENT RESULT OF THESE METRICAL GROUNDWORKS.
PRESENTED EARLIER.  FIRST THE RHYTHMS OF HIGHER LEVEL
CULTURES WILL BE DISCUSSED AND THEN THE RHYTHMS OF 
NON-LITERATE CULTURES WILL BE COMPARED WITH EXAMPLES
FROM MORE SOPISTICATED CULTURES.  EVENTUALLY, WE SHALL SEE
THAT THE SAME METHODS ARE USED BY TIME TYPE I AND II
CULTURES ALIKE.
     THE ADDITIVE METHOD IS BASED ON ADDING UNEQUAL BEAT
UNITS TO FORM A COMPLETE METER.  THIS PRODUCES RHYTHM THAT IS MUCH MORE
HIGHLY DEVELOPED AND COMPLEX THAN DIVISIVE RHYTHM AND IT PLAYS AN EQUAL OR
MORE IMPORTANT ROLE THAN MELODY OR HARMONY (IF IT EXISTS).
SINCE THERE IS NO CONCEPT OF EVENLY SPACED DOWNBEATS, AN AFRICAN
DOESN'T THINK OF HIS MUSIC AS GOING AGAINST THE BEAT.  INSTEAD,
HIS RHYTHMIC LINE IS ACOMPOSITE SERIES OF METRIC 
UNITS WITH THE DOWNBEAT OCURRING WHENEVER A NEW UNIT HAS 
BEGUN.  THUS INSTEAD OF:          
                                               (A WESTERN TRANSCRIPTION)

IT IS MORE LIKE:

IT IS INTERESTING TO EXAMINE WHAT HAPPENED WHEN THIS
POLYRHYTHMIC NOTION WAS, OF NECESSITY, MELDED WITH THE 
OPPOSITE NOTION OF MONOMETRIC AND MONORHYTHMIC EUROPEAN
MUSIC DURING THE SLAVE TRADE.  THE RESULT WAS JAZZ WITH
ITS RHYTHM BEING THE MOST DISTINGUISABLE ELEMENT FROM
OTHER WESTERN MUSICS.  IN ORDER TO ADJUST TO THE
DIVISIVE METHOD, SYNCOPATION WAS THE ONLY COMPROMISE
AVAILABLE.  "SYNCOPATION IMPLIES A WELL-ESTABLISHED 
RHYTHMIC PULSE, THE EFFECT BEING BASED ON A 
DISLOCATION OF THAT PULSE BY GIVING A STRONG ACCENT 
WHERE ONE IS NOT EXPECTED, AND SUPPRESSING THE NORMAL
ACCENT OF THE PULSE." - WALTER PISTON.  THIS EMBELLISHMENT
OF THE BASIC BEAT IS TOTALLY DIVISIVE IN CONCEPT;
AN AFRICAN CONCEIVES OF HIS DOWNBEATS AS BEING INDEPENDENT
OF ANY UNDERLYING PULSE.  BUT, THIS COMPROMISE STILL
ALLOWED THE AFRICAN TO CONTINUE CREATING CROSS-RHYTHMS
AND TO MAINTAIN TWO SIMULTANEOUS RHYTHMS WITHIN A
WESTERN FRAMEWORK.  A GOOD ILLUSTRATION OF THE
WHITE/BLACK CONSOLIDATION IS THE SPIRITUAL "WHEN
THE SAINTS GO MARCHING IN".  IT HAS A SIMPLE 4/4 METER BUT
THE TRADITIONAL RENDITION OF IT IS TO CLAP THE BEATS 2 AND
4 INSTEAD OF THE DIVISIVELY ORDAINED STRONG BEATS, 1 AND
3.  THIS STRUGGLE BETWEEN TWO METERS IS THE BASIS OF
THE "SWING" FEELING IN ALL JAZZ FORMS.
     INDIANS HAVE A SOPHISTICATED LEARNED THEORY FOR THEIR
MUSIC.  THERE ARE 34 CLASSIFIED METRICAL PATTERNS
CALLED TALA'S THE LONGES OF WHICH IS 138 BEATS.  ALL 
PIECES ARE COMPOSED BY COMBINING ANY TALA
WITH ANY RAGA (AN ESTABLISHD TONAL SEQUENCE).
THE METER OF A PIECE IS ESTABLISHED WITH ONE PRESENTATION OF THE TALA
AND ANY DEVIATION FROM IT IS READILY NOTICED.  THE
BASIS FOR DEVELOPING A PIECE IS THE ARTISTS SKILL IN
IMPROVISING ON BOTH RAGA AND TALA.  
     THE EASTERN EUROPEAN
COUNTRIES HAVE DEVELOPED A DANCE ORIENTED RHYTHMIC SYSTEM.
THEIR PREFERENCE IS MOSTLY FOR METERS OF SEVEN, ELEVEN, AND THIRTEEN;
WHICH GIVES A GLARING CONTRADICTION TO THE WESTERN NOTION THAT
DANCES HAVE TO BE IN SIMPLE METERS (2/4, 3/4) IN ORDER
TO "KEEP EVERYONE TOGETHER". POLYRHYTHM IS WIDELY USED AND
THERE ARE SOME   
EXAMPLES OF YUGOSLAVIAN DANCES IN WHICH THERE ARE SIX-STEP
PATTERNS TOGETHER WITH FIVE-BEAT PATTERNS OF MUSIC AND THEY
COINCIDE ONLY ONCE IN THIRTY BEATS.  THE MOST EXTREME DELAY
OF COINCIDENCE KNOWN IS ONCE IN 320 BEATS (ARBATSKY).

PAGE 7
     THE DIVISIVE METHOD PRODUCES MORE METRONOMIC MUSIC THAN
DOES THE ADDITIVE METHOD.  ITS PRINCIPLE IS THAT METERS
CAN BE BROKEN UP INTO REGULARLY OCURRING BEAT PULSES.
MOST METERS ARE IN MULTIPLES OF TWO BEATS AND THREE BEATS
PER MEASURE IS THE ONLY ODD METER.
     IN THE FAR EAST, ARTISTS SHOW AN OVERWHELMING PREFERENCE FOR AN 
EVEN, FLOWING, UNACCENTED STYLE IN POETRY, MUSIC, AND DANCE.
THIS STEADY PLODDING MOTION RESULTS IN AN ALMOST EXCLUSIVE
USE OF BINARY RHYTHMS, THAT IS, 2/4 AND 4/4 METERS.
THE CLASSICAL CHINESE OPERAS, 
1530-1860 A.D., ARE ALMOST ALL COMPOSED IN 4/4. TERNARY 
RHYTHMS ARE OCCASIONALLY FOUND IN KOREA BUT OTHERWISE
THEY ARE VERY RARE.  EXCEPT FOR THE JAPANESE BUGAKU ART FORM
(WHICH WAS BROUGHT FROM INDIA ALONG WITH THE BUDDHIST 
RELIGION), THIS GENERALIZATION HOLDS FOR ALL OF THE NORTHERN
COUNTRIES.  CURT SACHS PROPOSED A THEORY THAT SINCE
ALL OF THESE CULTURES SUBSCRIBE TO SOME DERIVATIVE
OF A CONFUCIAN RELIGION, THE TEACHINGS MUST BE THE INFLUENCING
FACTOR (SACHS, 1953).   TSAI YU STATED IN HIS MUSIC
TREATISE WRITTEN CA.1600 A.D. THAT EVEN DIVISIONS ARE SACRED.
AMONG HIS EXAMPLES ARE: DANCERS HAVE TWO LEGS AND WHEN PLAYING
A STRINGED INSTRUMENT, STRUMMING IS DONE IN EVEN UPS AND DOWNS
OF THE PLECTRUM.  CONFUSCIOUS VOUCHED FOR MUSIC THAT WAS
SERENE AND STATIC (TIMELESS) SO THAT THE NERVES OF THE
LISTENER WOULD NOT BE UPSET.  FOR EXAMPLE, THE HYMN TO 
CONFUSCIOUS IS OVER 200 WHOLE NOTES WITH NO DIFFERENTIATING
ACCENT FROM BEGINNING TO END.  THE JAPANESE COURT
FEELS THAT TEMPO CHANGES WITHIN A PIECE ARE UNDIGNIFIED.  ONE
PROBLEM WITH SACHS' THEORY, BESIDES THAT IT ASSUMES THAT
EVERYONE COMPOSING AND LISTENING IS DEEPLY RELIGIOUS, IS THAT
IT DOESN'T HOLD TOO WELL IN THE VISUAL ARTS WITH THE SNARLING
TIGERS AND DRAGONS, ETC.
     IN INDONESIA, AT THE SOUTHERN BORDER
OF THE FAR EASTERN MUSICAL REGION, THIS 
IDEAL OF STATELINESS OBVIOUSLY DIDN'T CARRY MUCH WEIGHT.
THE QUADRATIC STYLE IS USED IN A VERY FLASHY AND ENERGETIC
MANNER.  (QUADRATIC STRUCTURES ARE BUILT IN MULTIPLES OF FOUR.
THE STANDARD PHRASE IS SIXTEEN BEATS LONG WITH EACH FOUR BEAT UNIT MARKED
BY A GONG AT ITS COMPLETION.)  IN BALI,
THE WAY A SEEMINGLY EVEN STRING OF 
SIXTEENTH NOTES IS CREATED IS EVIDENCE THAT ANOTHER
INFLUENCING FORCE WAS AT WORK HERE.

                  

IS THE COMPOSITE OF THIS TWO-PERFORMER PASSAGE



IT IS INTERESTING TO NOTE THAT THE BALINESE FASCINATION
FOR INTERLOCKING ENTITIES IS ALSO EVIDENT IN THEIR
WEEK SYSTEM.  THEY OBSERVE THREE WEEKS OF THREE, FOUR,
AND FIVE DAYS EACH THAT GO ON SIMULTANEOUSLY, WHEN
THEY COINCIDE, A SUPERCYCLE IS MARKED AND IT IS
A SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT EVENT.

PAGE 8
     THE MUSICS OF NON-LITERATE
CULTURES SUCH AS IN PARTS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA, THE PACIFIC
ISLANDS, ASIA, AND NEGRO AFRICA,
CANNOT BE GENERALLY CLASSIFIED BY ONE TYPE OF RHYTHMIC USAGE.
BECAUSE THESE CULTURES ARE THOUGHT OF AS BENG SIMPLE, 
IT DOESN'T FOLLOW
THAT THEIR MUSIC IS SIMPLER THAN THAT 
OF MORE COMPLEX SOCIETIES.  THE SPREAD OF RHYTHMIC 
COMPLEXITIES IS FROM THE VERY COMPLEX (IN PARTS OF NEGRO
AFRICA) TO VERY LOW LEVEL METRICS AMONG TRIBES IN NEW ZEALAND
TO METERLESS SONGS FOUND ALMOST EVERYWHERE.
AMONG THE RHYTHMIC METHODS ARE BODY-ORIENTED AND
TEXT-ORIENTED RHYTHM, AND ISORHYTHM.
BODY-RHYTHM IS CHARACTERIZED BY A 2:1 RATIO OF
ACCENTED BEAT FOLLOWED BY A WEAK ONE,  AS IN NATURAL
CLAPPING AND DRUM-BEATING.  THIS IS UBIQUITOUS.
WE HAVE THE FAMILIAR DRUMMING OF AMERINDIANS AND
WESTERN ROCK AND ROLL (THE SOURCE OF THE DESCRIPTION
"PRIMITIVE TEENAGE MUSIC").
TEXT-ORIENTATION MEANS THAT THE BINDING RHYTHMICAL ELEMENT
IN THE SONG IS THE RHYTHM OF THE TEXT.  THE RHYTHMIC
FLOW, AS A RESULT, IS METERLESS AND IT FEELS VERY LOOSE AND FREE.  EXAMPLES ARE
ARE FOUND EVERYWHERE, AMONG THE MAORI, THE NAVAJO, (AND
IN WESTERN EUROPE IN OPERA NARRATIVES - RECITATIVE
STYLE).  ISO-RHYTHM IS A TECHNIQUE USING REPEATING SERIES
OF DURATIONAL VALUES.  IT IS MOST NOTABLY FOUND AMONG
AMERICAN INDIAN TRIBES (AND IN THE EUROPEAN MIDDLE AGES).
IN SOME CASES NEIGHBORING AMERICAN INDIAN TRIBES SHARING 
THE SAME CULTURE, WILL USE DIFFERENT METHODS IN CONSTRUCTING
SONGS   AND ALL OF THESE METHODS ARE  FOUND IN SOPHISTICATED CULTURES.
(I WOULD CITE SOME SPECIFIC TRIBES ON THIS BUT THE
LIBRARY THAT I AM USING HAS HAD ALL OF THEIR BOOKS ON
AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC DISAPPEAR MYSTERIOUSLY SO I AM UNABLE
TO CHECK MY MEMORY.)
     SINCE CULTURES WHICH PREFER THE SAME METHOD MAY BE
GEOGRAPHICALLY AND CULTURALLY DISTANT, ANY SIMILARITIES FOUND
BETWEEN THEM, IN ORDER TO ANSWER OUR INITIAL QUESTION, 
WOULD PROBABLY BE MORE COINCIDENTAL THAN USEABLE.
IN DEALING WITH RHYTHMIC COMPLEXITIES, WE ARE FACED WITH ANOTHER
PROBLEM SIMILAR TO THAT WITH  RELATIVE STRICTNESS'.  
TWO RHYTHMS THAT OBJECTIVELY SEEM WIDELY SEPARATED IN
COMPLEXITY ARE, WHEN VIEWED SUBJECTIVELY FROM THEIR RESPECTIVE
CULTURES ARE EQUALLY COMPLEX.
PERSONS FROM THESE CULTURES WILL ALSO FIND THEM
MUTUALLY UNINTELLIGIBLE.  AFRICAN RHYTHMS 
VERSUS WESTERN ONES ARE
OBJECTIVELY MORE COMPLEX  BECAUSE OF THEIR INTRICATE
INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF PATTERNS.  THIS DOESN'T MEAN THAT  
AFRICANS WILL FIND OUR RHYTHMS INCREDIBLY SIMPLISTIC. ON
THE CONTRARY, SINCE NEGRO AFRICANS GENERALLY USE ONLY A FEW
DURATIONAL VALUES TO BUILD THEIR COMPLEXITIES FROM, OUR
LARGE SET OF NOTE VALUES IS INCOMPREHENSIBLE TO THEM.
BECAUSE OF THIS PROBLEM, COMPARISONS ON THE BASIS OF 
COMPLEXITY WOULD BE INCOMPLETE AND UNJUSTIAFIBLE.

     THE HYPOTHESIS THAT SIMILAR CULTURES MAKE RHYTHM IN 
SIMILAR WAYS SEEMED TO HOLD FAIRLY WELL WITH
THE SOPHISTICATED CULTURES.  ASIDE FROM THE FACT THAT
THE ADDITIVE AND DIVISIVE METHODS PRODUCE DIFFERENT EFFECTS,
THE IDEAS BEHIND THEM ARE COMPARABLE.  THE RHYTHMS ARE
STRUCTURED AND THEY TEND NOT TO CHANGE METERS AT RANDOM.
THE INFLUENCES BETWEEN SIMILAR CULTURES ARE SUPPORTIVE ALSO.
THE ART MUSICS OF INDIA AND THE WHOLE NEAR EAST ARE 
UNDENIABLY SIMILAR, AND LIKEWISE, THE SAME IS TRUE IN THE
FAR EAST.  THE ART MUSICS OF WESTERN EUROPE ARE
EVEN MORE SIMILAR; IN SOME CASES THEY ARE INDISTINGUISHABLE.
NO DOUBT, THE SIMILARITIES OF MUSICS BETWEEN SIMILAR CULTURES
IN THE SAME GEOGRAPHICAL REGION IS LARGELY DUE TO THE
FACILITY OF INTERCOMMUNICATION.
     THE BREAKDOWN OF THE HYPOTHESIS COMES WITH AN EXAMINATION
OF NON-LITERATE CULTURES.  THE PRIMITIVE VEDDA
OF INNER CEYLON EXHIBIT STEADY BINARY METERS WHILE AUSTRALIAN
ABORIGINALS PREFER MORE COMPLEX RHYTHMIC INTERACTIONS.
NEIGHBORING TRIBES IN NORTH AMERICA PREFER OPPOSED RHYTHMIC
SYSTEMS IN ORGANIZING THEIR SONGS.
THE GAMUT OF RHYTHMS USED RUNS FROM THE VERY SIMPLE TO
THE VERY COMPLEX.  ALTHOUGH, ADMITTEDLY, THIS RANGE CORRESPONDS
WITH THE DEGREES OF ADVANCEMENT OF THE PEOPLES INVOLVED,
AND THE MOST SIMPLE RHYTHMS IS SIMPLER THAN ANYTHING FOUND
AMONG SOPHISTICATED CULTURES, SOME OF THE MOST
COMPLEX RHYTHMS ARE PRODUCED BY NON-LITERATE PEOPLE IN BLACK
AFRICA.  EACH CATEGORY OF RHYTHMIC METHOD USED IN THESE
MUSICS HAS A COMPARABLE COUNTERPART IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE
LITERATE WORLD, USUALLY IN A CULTURE IN WHICH ANY ARTISTIC
INFLUENCE TO OR FRO WOULD BE DOUBTFUL.
     SOME GENERALIZATIONS CAN BE SHOWN TO HOLD CONSISTENTLY
ACROSS SIMILAR CULTURES.  BUT, THERE IS MUCH EVIDENCE SHOWING
THAT TIME TYPE I AND II CULTURES DO CREATE SIMILAR
RHYTHMS, AT LEAST OBJECTIVELY, AND THAT SIMILAR CULTURES
CAN BE PARTIAL TO COMPLETELY DISSIMILAR METHODS.
     WE WILL DISMISS TRYING TO USE THIS CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH
BECAUSE THE RESULTS CAN ONLY BE SPECULATIVE AT BEST,  AND
INTELLECTUAL "BEATING AROUND THE BUSH" BY TRYING TO FIND
PHILOSOPHICAL  ROOTS FOR RHYTHMIC
PREFERENCES SEEMS FAR-FETCHED AT THIS POINT, AS IN THE 
FAR EAST AND INDIA.
     AN ALTERNATE APPROACH WOULD BE TAKEN FROM THE STRUCTURALIST
  STRUCTURALISM IS A PHILOSOPHY AND A METHOD OF
STUDY WHICH MAINTAINS THE BELIEF THAT THERE IS A BASIC 
STRUCTURING FORCE THAT IS INNATE IN MAN AND THE STRUCTURES 
OF ALL SOCIAL PHENOMENA WITHIN ONE SOCIETY ARE DERIVED FROM 
THIS FORCE AND ARE WITHIN THE BOUNDARIES OF THAT FORCE.  
ALL OF THESE 
SOCIAL PHENOMENA, I.E., KINSHIP SYSTEMS, POLITICS, FINE ARTS,
RELIGION, FASHION, ETC., CAN BE BROKEN DOWN INTO A 
LANGUAGE-LIKE CODE WITH A GRAMMAR DETERMINING WHAT IS
CORRECT IN SYNTAX.  THEY HAVE OVERT SURFACE STRUCTURES
AND COVERT DEEP STRUCTURES EHICH THE PEOPLE DO NOT HAVE
TO BE AWARE OF, AND USUALY AREN'T.  FOR EXAMPLE,
NATIVE SPEAKERS OF A LANGUAGE ARE RARELY ABLE TO INTELLECTUALIZE
THE GRAMMATICAL RULES THAT THEY USE.  ALL OF THE DEEP
STRUCTURES LEAD BACK TO THE BASIC STRUCTURING SOURCE.
RATHER THAN EXAMINE THE CHANGE OF A STRUCTURE
THROUGH HISTORY, ONE STRUCTURE AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS
MUST BE VIEWED IN TERMS OF ALL THE INTERWOVEN STRUCTURES
WORKING SIMULTANEOUSLY.
     ACCORDINGLY, WE WILL TAKE THE LEVI-STRAUSS TIME-TYPE II 
AND SEE HOW THE RHYTHM
THAT HE PRODUCES FITS THE DESCRIPTION OF HIS TIME-TYPE.   
HERE WE HAVE A GROUP OF  PEOPLE WHICH IS TYPEFIED BY A LACK
OF PROGRESS AND IS CONCERNED WITH  MAINTAINING
EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN NATURE AND THE POPULACE.---SP-----
WE ARE ASSUMING THAT THEIR AESTHETIC IDEALS
ARE SIMILAR SO ONE WOULD NOT EXPECT THESE PEOPLE TO SHOW MUCH
INTEREST IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SONG, IMPLYING A MAINTAINED 
RHYTHMIC STRUCTURE.  IN SUPPORT OF THIS, THE
MOST CHARACTERISTIC ASPECT OF TIME-TYPE 2  MUSIC 
IS THAT IT IS COMMONLY HETEROMETRIC - THE METER CHANGES 
REGULARLY THROUGHOUT THE PIECE.  
THIS IS DUE TO THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SONG TEXT RATHER THAN
THE AESTHETICS OF A SYMMETRICAL, INTELLECTUALLY 
THROUGH-COMPOSED PIECE.  MOST OFTEN, THE DRUM IS IN A SUBORDINATE
POSITION TO THE VOICE, EMPHASIZIG THE WORD ACCENTS AS
THEY FALL.  
NON-LITERATE MELODIES ARE ALMOST ALL SHORT AND CAN
BE REPEATED MANY TIMES WITHOUT THE LISTENER OR PERFORMER 
GROWING WEARY OF THEM.  ON THE OTHER HAND, IT WOULD
SEEM THAT IF THERE IS NO CONCERN ABOUT CONSISTENT
OR ACCURATE RECKONING OF TIME, THE MUSIC WOULD REFLECT IT
BY NOT CONTAINING EXACT REPETITIONS OF RHYTHMS.  BUT ,THE
CHIPPEWA OF NORTH AMERICA AND THE FUTUNA OF POLYNESIA
(EXAMPLES OUT OF MANY) TAKE GREAT PAINS IN KEEPING
THE RHYTHMS OF A PIECE INTACT.  THE WORDS AND MELODY MAY CHANGE
SLIGHTLY BUT IF THE RHYTHM IS ALTERED, A NEW SONG
HAS BEEN CREATED.
     THE SAME COMTRADICTION OCCURS IN LITERATE INDIA,
CLASSIFIED  AS A TIME TYPE I CULTURE ON A LOWER SCALE THAN
WESTERN EUROPE.  BOTH KARNATAK AND HINDUSTANI MUSICS ARE VERY
SOPHISTICATED, EMPLOYING COMPX SCALES, RHYTHMS, FORMS,
AND THEORIES.  THE PREVAILING ATTITUDE ABOUT APPLYING A
TALA (METER) WITH A RAGA (SCALE) IS RATHER CONTRADICTORY TO
THEIR TIME TYPE SENTIMENTS.  WHEN DOUBLING OR HALVING THE 
SPEED OF A PIECE, ONE ONLY ALTERS THE SPEED OF THE RAGA AND
THE TALA ALWAYS REMAINS STEADY.  THE METHOD IS AS FOLLOWS.
THE EXAMPLE IS IN KARNATAK NOTATION; THE LETTERS ARE NOTE 
NAMES.
     TALA -  ROOPAKA TALA            OR  2 + 4 = 6
       ←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←←

          S  R      S  R  G  M      -  AT NORMAL SPEED
          R  G      R  G  M  P
          SRSR      GMRGRGMP        -  AT DOUBLE SPEED
          S         R   S           -  AT HALF SPEED
          R         G   M   
WITH A MORE COMPLEX TALA SUCH AS 7 + 1 + 2 IT IS EASY
TO SEE THAT IT CAN GET QUITE COMPLICATED.  MY FIRST 
REACTION TO THIS WHEN LEARNING IT WAS, HOW CAN ONE BE SURE
THAT AFTER  GOING THROUGH THESE SPEED MUTATIONS,
THERE WON'T BE ANY RAGA NOTES OR TALA BEATS
LEFT OVER UPON REACHING THE END.  APPARENTLY,  THE INDIAN
PERFORMER FEELS THAT THERE IS NO NEED TO WORRY AND ASSUMES
THAT IT WILL ALL COME OUT ALL RIGHT.  THIS SORT OF THINKING
IS WHAT ONE WOULD EXPECT IN A TIME TYPE II CULTURE.  ONE
THE OTHER HAND, SINCE INDIANS ARE VERY UNCONCERNED ABOUT THE
EXACT TIME OF DAY, ETC., THIS CAN BE SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
TO SAY THAT THE LESS A CULTURE IS A TIME TYPE I, THEN THE
LESS COMPULSIVE HE WILL BE ABOUT PLANNING HIS MUSIC BEFORE
THE ACTUAL PERFORMANCE OF IT, AS IN THE WEST.
     WHAT ABOUT INDONESIA.  THEY ARE CERTAINLY NOT AS TIME
TYPE I ORIENTED AS THE WEST AND SINCE INDONESIAN MUSIC IS THE
PRODUCT OF THE VILLAGES AND INDIAN MUSIC HAS
TRADITIONALLY BEEN MORE ACADEMIC, THE MIND BEHIND THE MUSIC IS
PROBABLY NOT AS TIME TYPE ORIENTED AS IN INDIA.  BUT, THE
INDONESIAN IS MORE LIKE THE WESTERNER THAN THE INDIAN
ABOUT GETTING ALL THE SOUNDS IN THEIR CORRECT PLACES.
IN AN ENSEMBLE, ONLY A FEW INSTRUMENTS IMPROVISE AND THE LARGE
MAJORITY OF THE GROUP IS DEVOTED TO MAINTAINING THE METER.
THE LARGE GONG PLAYERS, WHOSE DUTIES ARE TO PUNCTUATE THE
IMPORTANT BEATS, ARE CONSIDERED MOST IMPORTANT AND ARE AMONG THE
HIGHEST PAID MEMBERS.
     POSSIBLY, COMPULSIVENESS ABOUT CORRECTNESS
OF METRIC AND RHYTHMIC OUTCOMES IS MORE PREVALENT IN DIVISIVE
MUSIC CULTURES THAN IN ADDITIVE MUSICS WHERE METER SEEMS
TO BE APPROACHED WITH MORE HUMOR.  BUT, IT DOESN'T APPEAR THAT
RECKONING OF TIME CAN BE CORRELATED WITH THE RHYTHMIC METHOD 
USED OR WITH THE DEGREE OF CONCERN IN HAVING RHYTHMS REPLICATED
OR PRODUCED CORRECTLY.

PAGE 10
     AS STATED BEFORE, THE OVERT ASPECTS OF A CULTURE ARE MORE
SUBJECT TO THOROUGH UNDERSTANDING BY AN ALIEN THAN IS ITS TIME
SENSE.  BECAUSE OF THIS, IT IS EASY TO UNDERSTAND WHY
AN OUTSIDER, WHO CAN PROCEED ONLY ON
FACE-VALUE APPRAISALS, WOULD HAVE DIFFICULTIES IN
FINDING ANY CORRELATING DATA WHEN TRYING 
TO COMPARE THE TWO.
EVIDENCE TO THIS ARE THE OUTRIGHT FAILURES OF THE
PRECEDING ATTEMPTED CROSS-CULTURAL EXAMINATIONS.
COMPLEX RHYTHM WAS NOT FOUND TO BE A PRODUCT OF COMPLEX
CULTURES EXCLUSIVELY, A STRICT TIME SENSE DID NOT CORRELATE
WITH STRICT RHYTHMS, AND THE GENERALIZATION THAT SIMILAR
CULTURES (WITH SIMILAR TIME SENSES) WOULD MAKE SIMILAR RHYTHMS DIDN'T
HOLD.  THE BEST APPROACH SO FAR WAS THE STRUCTURALIST ATTEMPT TO
VIEW A RHYTHM SOLELY WITHIN ITS CULTURAL CONTEXT WITHOUT
MAKING ANY BROAD CROSS-CULTURAL GENERALIZATIONS.  BUT,
THIS METHOD MET WITH UNFORTUNATE CONTRADICTIONS ALSO.
MOST OF THE PROBLEMS THAT HAVE ARISEN ARE PROBABLY DUE TO THE
FACT THAT TIME PERCEPTION IS AN EXPERIENTIAL
PHENOMENON AND WE HAVE BEEN APPROACHING RHYTHM OBJECTIVELY
RATHER THAN SUBJECTIVELY.  UNFORTUNATELY, IN ORDER FOR
ONE TO UNDERSTAND A CULTURE'S TIME SENSE AND MUSIC, A TOTAL
IMMERSION INTO THE CULTURE FOR SEVERAL YEARS WOULD BE NECESSARY.
MAKING THESE LEARNED COMMENTS FROM SUPERFICIAL OBSERVATIONS
IS OBVIOUSLY NOT ENOUGH TO EVEN BEGIN TO ANSWER THE INITIAL QUESTION.
ALSO, IT IS OBJECTIONABLE TO ME TO DO ANLYSES ON TIME
SENSES THAT I HAVE NO FAMILIARITY WITH.
A SUBJECTIVE APPROACH TO BOTH AREAS WOULD BE THE PREFERRED
ROUTE BUT IT IS ALSO IMPOSSIBLE AT THIS POINT.  OBJECTIVE
INQUIRY IS STILL THE ONLY ALTERNATIVE.  BUT, INSTEAD OF 
IMMEDIATELY TRYING TO LINK AN OBJECTIVE RHYTHM ANALYSIS WITH A
SUBJECTIVE TIME-SENSE, WE SHOULD TRY A COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO
AREAS ON THE OBJECTIVE LEVEL.  MUSICAL RHYTHM IS ONLY ONE OF
MANY DIMENSIONS OF OBJECTIVE TIME USAGE. ANOTHER CLOSELY  RELATED
SYSTEM IS SPEECH RHYTHM.  BOTH SPEECH AND MUSIC ARE READILY
ACCESSIBLE AND THEY USE THE SAME MEDIUM (SOUND).
EVERY CULTURE USES THEM TOGETHER IN SONG AND WE HAVE ALREADY SEEN
THE UBIQUITOUS USE OF TEXT-ORIENTATION IN BUILDING
RHYTHMS.  THERE IS EVIDENCE TO SHOW THAT IN NON 
TEXT-ORIENTED SONGS, THERE IS A TENDENCY TO PRESERVE THE NATURAL
WORD RHYTHM. (SIMILARITIES MAY ALSO BE FOUND BETWEEN MUSIC AND
SPEECH GRAMMARS.)  IF THERE IS A CONSISTENT 
CORRELATION TO BE FOUND THROUGH MANY ASPECTS OF MUSIC AND
SPEECH AND THROUGH MANY CULTURES, THEN WE CAN BEGIN TO
ASSUME THAT THE CORRELATION MIGHT ALSO EXIST IN OTHER LESS 
OBJECTIVE ASPECTS OF CULTURES.
     THE PROBLEM REMAINS THAT
DUE TO CROSS-CULTURAL INFLUENCES, ISOLATING THE 
INDIGENOUS ARTISTIC ELEMENTS IN A CULTURE IS IMPOSSIBLE
IN MANY CASES.  IF SOME CONCRETE POSITIVE CORRELATIONS ARE
GOTTEN AFTER ALL OF THIS, THEN WE CAN BEGIN TO ASK WHAT 
MAKES A CULTURE ABSORB ONLY CERTAIN RHYTHMIC CHARACTERISTICS
FROM OTHER CULTURES.  DOES IT HAVE ANYTHING TO DO WITH
THEIR TIME SENSES.  IS IT MERELY AN AESTHETIC 
PREFERENCE.  IS IT THAT THE PEOPLE ARE OPEN PERCEPTUALLY
TO SPECIFIC THINGS AND CANNOT ACCEPT OTHERS.  FOR 
INSTANCE, SOME WESTERN COMPOSERS HAVE USED EASTERN
SCALES BUT EXAMPLES OF BORROWED COMPLEX RHYTHMS ARE
RARE.  THE SCALES ARE EASIER TO PERCEIVE
EARLY ATTEMPTS TO ANALYZE THE MUSIC OF BLACK SLAVES
IS EVIDENCE TO THE SAME EFFECT.  SINCE CONTINOUS METRIC
CHANGES ARE NONEXISTENT IN 18TH AND 19TH
CENTURY EUROPEAN MUSIC, F.W. ALLEN APOLOGIZES FOR 
HIS INABILITY TO NOTATE THIS SONG CORRECTLY.



     "GOD GOT PLENTY O' ROOM"
HE SAYS:  "THE ABOVE IS GIVEN EXACTLY AS IT WAS SUNG,
SOME OF THE MEASURES IN 2/8, SOME IN 3/8. AND SOME IN
2/4 TIME.  THE IRREGULARITY PROBABLY ARISES FROM THE
OMISSION OF RESTS, BUT IT SEEMED A HOPELESS UNDERTAKING TO
RESTORE THE CORRECT TIME, AND IT WAS THOUGHT BEST TO GIVE
IT IN THIS SHAPE AS, AT ANY RATE, A CHARACTERISTIC
SPECIMEN OF NEGRO SINGING".

         BIBLIOGRAPHY (ALTHOUGH INCOMPLETE)

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